Pierre Duhem

Pierre Duhem was a French physicist and philosopher known for his work on the philosophy of science, particularly the nature of scientific theories and their testing. He argued that because theories make numerous predictions, it's impossible to test a single hypothesis in isolation, leading to the "Duhem-Quine problem." This challenges scientific realism, suggesting our theories may not reflect reality but are useful frameworks. Duhem emphasized the historical nature of scientific progress, noting that theories evolve rather than are outright discarded, advocating for a more nuanced understanding of scientific explanation and theory change within the broader context of equilibrium thermodynamics.