The Duhem-Quine problem

The Duhem-Quine problem highlights that when an experiment or observation contradicts a theory, it’s often unclear which part of the complex set of assumptions is responsible. In other words, theories are tested together with many background assumptions, so a failed prediction doesn’t definitively mean the core theory is wrong—other factors could be at fault. This makes it challenging to determine if a scientific theory is truly incorrect or if the issue lies elsewhere in the network of assumptions, emphasizing the interconnected nature of scientific testing and the difficulty of confirming or falsifying ideas in isolation.