12th Century

The 12th century was a transformative period in Europe, marked by the rise of feudalism, the growth of towns, and the beginnings of universities. It saw the spread of Gothic architecture, with cathedrals reflecting ambition and spirituality. This era also witnessed the Crusades, military campaigns aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land, which increased cultural exchanges between Christians and Muslims. In literature, works like "The Song of Roland" emerged, while philosophical thought flourished with figures like Peter Abelard. Overall, the 12th century laid important foundations for the social, religious, and intellectual developments of the late Middle Ages.