the Quine-Duhem thesis

The Quine-Duhem thesis suggests that scientific tests do not confirm or disprove individual hypotheses in isolation because theories are tested as whole systems. When an experiment conflicts with a theory, scientists can choose to modify not only the core hypothesis but also auxiliary assumptions and background beliefs. This means that unique confirmation or disconfirmation of a single hypothesis is impossible; instead, evidence influences the confidence in the entire network of interconnected ideas. Essentially, scientific testing involves complex webs of assumptions, making it difficult to attribute experimental results to one specific hypothesis alone.