European fortification architecture

European fortification architecture evolved to withstand evolving warfare, featuring thick stone walls, bastions, and strategic layouts. Castles and city walls included high towers for defense and lookout points, with their designs emphasizing durability and strategic sightlines. During the Renaissance, star-shaped forts with angular bastions were developed to better deflect cannon fire and provide overlapping fields of fire. Defensive moats, glacis slopes, and reinforced gates further enhanced protection. Overall, European fortifications combined robustness with innovative geometries to adapt to changing military technology, creating structures that prioritized defense, durability, and strategic advantage.